Cleopatra Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cleopatra - Essay Example In the third year of their reign Ptolemy, encouraged by his advisers, assumed sole control of the government and drove Cleopatra into exile. She was determined to regain her throne. She promptly gathered an army in Syria but was unable to assert her claim until the arrival at Alexandria of Julius Caesar, who became her lover and espoused her cause. He was for a time hard pressed by the Egyptians but ultimately triumphed, and in 47 bc Ptolemy XIII was killed. And that time, Caesar proclaimed Cleopatra Queen of Egypt. Cleopatra is described as a beautiful, sensuous, intelligent, and desirous of bringing her beloved Egypt into the forefront of world power and politics. She started out as a famous queen of a wealthy nation in time of ancient history and her fame grew from there. During her reign, "Cleopatra promoted herself relentlessly, making public displays of her power, her image as pharaoh and goddess, and her links with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony." She is considered extraordinary and most influential woman in the world history. Not all government has been run by men. According to website "Cleopatra is a woman who both combines, political wit and foresight, as well as a strong personal will combined with rigorous self-confidence." She has wielded power, revealed her feats during her times. To an imperious will, boldness and boundless ambition, Cleopatra added great intellectual power and physical seductiveness with which she twice nearly succeeded in becoming queen of the known world. In her both complex relationships with the two most powerful men, first is Julius Caesar, and several years after Caesar's death Is Mark Antony, she see to it that she had join forces with them to assure her place for Egypt in the shaping of the empire. In her relationships with the two great generals, Cleopatra used her body as well as her mind to achieve political ends. Her standards of conduct differed widely from Roman custom and law. But it was for her determination, and intelligence that she was feared at Rome, and Cleopatra deserves to be remembered as a nearly successful contender for control of the Hellenistic world. III. CLEOPATRA and JULIUS CAESAR Julius Caesar is the Roman general and a good leader who ruled the Roman Republic as a dictator. Cleopatra was restored to the throne by the Roman armies of Julius Caesar. She uses Julius Caesar to exercise his power over Egypt and proclaim her as a queen. Legend has it that Cleopatra had herself delivered to Caesar rolled up in a carpet. Whatever the truth, he fell in love with her, and she had a son, Caesarion, by him. Caesar invited Cleopatra and Caesarion to Rome, where she stayed until 44 BC, when Caesar was assassinated. IV. CLEOPATRA and MARK ANTONY Mark Antony is the Roman general went to Cleopatra for her support in his bid for power in Rome. He too fell in love with her. They later married and had three children. Mark Anthony and Cleopatra were ambitious and strove to take over the eastern Roman Empire. But their armies were defeated at the Battle of Actium, off Greece, by the forces of Octavian. As Octavian chased Cleopatra and Mark Antony to Alexandria, Cleopatra spread rumours that she was dead. In despair, Mark Antony stabbed himself. He died in her arms. Cleopatra committed suicide also. V. OCTAVIAN The war between Queen Cleopatra (assisted by Mark Antony) and Octavian was last and probably most important of

Medecine Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Medecine - Personal Statement Example I exuberantly thought I would be showing my companions a wonderful sight of fireworks and they will be thankful they were with me. Nevertheless, my enthusiasm turned into a nightmare when our eyes started to burn. We bawled our eyes out because of the dreadful event and as a result of the tear gas fired by the army. I quickly turned back, pulling my brother and cousin who were already shrieking. As the older person among us, I strove to have my wits intact. I took my brother and cousin home. I went out again with a purpose in mind. On my way out, I saw several women, children and elderly people crying and screaming by the roadside as policemen scoured the area, striking civilians who fought. There were fear and cries of anguish all around and the sight was just unbearable. Covering my eyes with a cloth, I went to the nearest vegetable shack. I once read that onion bulbs can be used as protection against tear gas and so I bought as many as I can carry. I cut the onions in half and handed them to my family and some people who were suffering, crying for help outside our home. I instructed them to squeeze the onion s near their eyes so that the gas released from the onions will irritate their eyes and help get rid of the tear gas. When I was sure that my family members were safe in our house, I went out to see how things were going outside. There was chaos everywhere. Policemen were checking every person’s belongings as they tried to go home safely, vehicles were stopped for hours for the policemen to complete their inspections and those who fought against them were hurt. Masked, uniformed men were scattered around the area. They had shields to protect themselves from people who protested against such inhumane actions. Behind them were tanks where tear gases were expelled from. The army was in stark contrast with the unarmed civilians who wanted nothing but to stop the bloodshed and live peacefully. Bloody victims, destroyed cars, suffering and angry people, women

The Emergence of the Novel Essay Example for Free

The Emergence of the Novel Essay According to Julien D. Bonn in A Comprehensive Dictionary of Literature, a novel is a ‘long fictional narrative in prose, which developed from the novella and other early forms of narrative.’ Additionally, E.M. Forster in attempting to the define the term ‘novel’ in Aspects of the Novel cites the definition of a Frenchman named Abel Chevally; ‘a fiction in prose of a certain extent’ and adds that he defines ‘extent’ as over 50,000 words. The novel tends to depict imaginary characters and situations but may include references to real places, people and events. Even though its characters and actions are imaginary, they are in some sense representative of real life. The emergence of the novel in its recognizably modern form, unlike the emergence of drama and poetry, can be traced back to Europe in the 18th century. The various factors that gave rise to the novel in English, which are more or less interrelated, include the rise of literacy, the explosion of the printing culture as well as the rise of individualism. One factor that gave rise to the novel in English was the rise of literacy. The novel emerged as a fully evolved literary form in the mid-eighteenth century in Samuel Richardson’s ‘Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded. A novel is usually organized under a plot of theme with a focus on character development and action. The novel is a young genre, a tiny infant indeed in comparison to poetry and drama, both of which seems to be as old as humanity. The educational system was not influenced significantly by the scientific revolution prior to the Enlightenment. Through the scientific revolution a great deal of traditional views at that time such as superstition and religion were broken down. Scientific facts and reasoning were now held at high esteem and great focus was placed on these two concepts. Philosophers such as John Locke went on to postulate that knowledge is obtained through sensation and reflection. This postulation was the basis of Locke’s theory that everyone has the same capacity of sensation, and education should not be restricted to a certain class or gender. Prior to the 17th and 18th century, literacy was generally restricted to males who belonged to the categories of nobles, mercantile, and professional classes but with the development of the education system, education was now provided to all classes. The literacy rate in Europe from the 17th century to the 18th century grew significantly. With the rise in literacy there was now a public demand for the novel. There were changes in the public cultural institutions, such as libraries and museums. The public libraries were now funded by the state and were accessible to everyone for free. Prior to the Enlightenment, libraries in Europe were restricted mostly to academies, aristocratic and private owners. During the 18th century, the price of books were too high for the average person, especially the most popular works such as an encyclopedias. Therefore, the public libraries offered commoners a chance of reading literates that could only be afforded by the wealthier classes. Thus the average, run of the mill individual who felt that need to put their thoughts to paper did exactly that and could do so effectively because of their educational exposure. Another factor that gave rise to the novel in English was the explosion of the printing culture. The modern novel is said to be the child of the printing press which is strongly connected to the rise in literacy. The number of books being published in the period of Enlightenment increased dramatically due to the increase in literacy rate and the increase in demand for books. Now that more people were literate, more people wished to write. Yet, prior to the inception of the printing press, writers would have to literally write their texts by hand. This proved to be very monotonous and discouraged many writers from penning books. However, the explosion of the print culture in the 18th century was both the result and cause of the increase in literacy. The number of books being published in the period of Enlightenment increased dramatically due to the increase in literacy rate and the increase in demand for books. There was a shift in interest in the categories of books, in the 17th century, religious books had comprised around half of all books published. However, throughout the century, the percentage of traditional genres such as religion has dropped to one-tenth by 1790 and there was an increase in popularity for the almanacs. Yet another factor that gave rise to the novel in English was the rise in individualism. Individualism is one of the cornerstones of the Enlightenment. It is a philosophy stressing the recognition of every person as a valuable individual with inalienable, inborn rights. Individualism highlighted man’s ability to reason, to look past the traditions and conventions that had dominated Europe in the past, and to make decisions for himself. Moreover, these ideas represented the separation and autonomy of man’s intellect from God—a development that opened the door to new discoveries and ideas and threatened the most powerful of Europe’s long-standing institutions. People were now writing about other people who were just like them.

Motivation for Advanced Level Esl Learning Essay Example for Free

Motivation for Advanced Level Esl Learning Essay In recent years, TESOL has called for the study of the social and cognitive factors that affect adult English learners’ participation in formal language learning. Numerous research projects have investigated the motivational influences and factors of adult immigrant English. In particular, factors and motivations which led them to take an advanced ESL courses after already having adequate fluency in English to conduct their work and daily lives. Using both qualitative and quantitative approaches, these studies have frequently uncovered that the ESL students opted to pursue advanced language training to, primarily, join the dominant language culture and community. Practical reasons, although very important to the learners, seem to be outweighed by the psychological drive to integrate into the culture. Social identity often proves to be the major factor in this process as student motivation often fostered by a self perceived difference between their current and desired identities as assimilated speakers of their new language. Fundamentally they saw language education as an essential transitional requisite for attainment of this preferred identity. Introduction The study of TESOL, which can trace its roots applied linguistics, occasionally failed to think about many non-linguistic aspects and situations of use which can influence learning. A large part of this knowledge, though, collected through education and psychology investigations could be applied to the groups of people and areas of interest being considered in TESOL. In places such as California second-language English users make up 63% of the target adult learners and almost a third in the country overall (Lasater and Elliott, 2004). The literature studied below begins by recapping major endeavors of psychology and education investigation so as to establish a baseline of student’s imperatives to learn. The study later focuses on motivation studies in linguistics related to ESL attainment and advancement. Part 2 Andragogy and Self-Motivation Andragogy  Review of the Literature Adult Learning from a Social Cognitive Perspective The foundation of adult learning theory was established in Lindeman (1926) who identified important distinctions between adult and child learning. These ideas were later developed by Knowles (1990) and constitute the hypothetical learning model dubbed andragogy. Andragogy, a mode of education starkly contrary pedagogy, which is characterized by children being instructed by adults in a directed and authoritarian environment. Knowles posited that because of significant psychological and physiological differences between youth and adult learners, the modes of educational motivation must be equally disparate. Knowles’s teachings are very well regarded in the education worldwide. Psychological metamorphosis in adult life, human factors brought to the learning situation, adult outside world demands, and life duties distinct from children’s, particularly a greater breadth of life encounters, varied incentives, and educational requirements all act in concert to create a distinctly different mode of motivation for adult learners. In particular, adult learning, per Knowles (1990), is predicated upon six vital components: 1. Justification for learning, that is, the rationale for desiring the education, before pursuing it. 2. Transformation of the adult concept of the self into that of an independent, self-directed human being. 3. Life experience that influences the adult body of accumulated knowledge, desires as well as being a component factor of self awareness. 4. Developmental willingness and practical feasibility relating to the synchronized pacing of learning experiences to their appropriate phases of emotional maturation. . Problem-centered approach of learning which can immediately be applied to real-life situations. 6. Self-motivation to learn by self-generated factors, as opposed to externally imposed requirements Kolb (1984) offered an expanded depiction of the process as a self-perpetuating process where actual events necessitate a review, analysis leading to later research and proper scientific revi ew. The learner’s assimilation into a different culture and society facilitates creation of educational desires with eventual engagement in a formalized educational environment as a key to attaining the desires. Learning occurs in myriad encounters/interactions with the student’s world in psychological process. In a social context, the actual knowledge gained is not so much seen as an acquisition but more as one of externalization. A way to get out of one’s self and into their new environment. Cognition of facts occurs which is a pro-active, relevant, and meaningful adult response to confusion created by previous discontinuity. A disjuncture can serve as â€Å"the point at which needs and wants and interests converge† . as well as an origin point for jumping into the learning process. By extending this idea to immigrant experiences, it seems as though basic everyday activity changes caused from immersion in a society which communicates in a foreign tongue, and made all the more real by the imperative to become functional in this society, can create disjuncture in their lives and compel them to pursue ESL education so as to not be overwhelmed. While many will pursue language education at once, others may find that language disjunctures happen later in their lives when greater proficiency beyond basic functional skills is required for a variety of reasons. Knowledge deficits plus a developed self-concept grounded within a cultural milieu can generate pressing need – a need to learn. Self-Motivation There are many different definitions for Motivation. In an educational context, one of the more comprehensive and useful definitions is from John Keller’s 1983 publication called Motivational Design of Instruction: â€Å"the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid, and the degree of effort they will exert in that respect† (Keller, 1983). Motivation is mercurial in nature. Keller identified a perception of applicability of the learning presented as fundamental for maintaining long-term motivation. Relevance exceeds the subject’s education requirements to encompass perceptions of satisfaction desired through the process in fulfilling psychological imperative senses of achievement, belonging, power and freedom. Encountering disappointment during a learning situation can dissipate motivation and possible cause learned helplessness (Bandura, 1982; deCharms, 1984; Weiner, 1984) or dismotivation going beyond mere discouragement. Educational psychology accepts that motivation also varies because of varied contexts in which learning occurs. Studies have brought to light additional connections between the act of learning a language and the evolving perspective of learners in the L2 environment. Peirce (1995) introduced the idea that acquisition of proficiency in a dominant language allowed learnersr to â€Å"acquire a wider range of symbolic and material resources [and] increase the value of [the learners’] cultural capital†. Sfard Prusak (2005) insinuated that the learning itself is closing the gap between learners’ actual and projected identities. Qualitative studies offer a model of language learning motivation which is dynamic, longitudinal process whereby learners’ cognitions and beliefs (Ushioda, 2001), and relevance of the curriculum to their interests (Syed, 2001) directly affect involvement in learning. Part 3 Language Learners vs Second Language Learners Linguists only recently have begun distinguishing foreign language students from second language students when studying their drive to pursue language education and have proposed â€Å"the dynamics involved in learning these two different types of language may be quite different† (Gardner, 2001). To date, the great majority of these studies are in foreign language (FL) classes. Gardener’s quote was actually taken from a volume containing 20 separate motivation studies, none of which contained ESL students. ESL students, for whom English was a gateway ability for study in different subjects or earning a university degree, were more compelled by exterior forces to learn than heritage and non-heritage EFL learners. A motivation survey of 580 adult immigrants at a local college based ESL program in Toronto rated the following motives highest: linguistic needs, basic skills, cultural awareness, social interaction, and resume writing (Paper, 1990). It found no significant difference in motives based age, duration of residence or level of education. The influence of integrative orientation in the data compelled the author to recommend including Canadian culture in the curriculum. Conscious intention of immigrating to the U. S. was another motivating factor for language learning in a separate exploration conducted on adult learners (Brilliant, Lvovich, and Markson, 1995). Student’s beliefs seem to fill a vital role in adult learning accomplishments, consistent with educational psychology, thus making them ideal subjects for motivation research. A particular study, Bernat (2003), examined the views of 20 unemployed Vietnamese learners in a vocational ESL course in Sydney, Australia. Their scores were high on two motivations: 85% of respondents expressed the integrative desire to develop their interpersonal relations with the Australians better and make friends among them, and all agreed that speaking English well would enhance their prospects for employment. Part 4 The Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)  This is a large battery of tests which measures a number of different aspects of language learning. The instrument was originally used to measure attitudes of students studying English and French in Canada. Scales included attitudes toward French Canadians, interest in foreign languages, attitudes toward European French people, attitudes toward learning French, integrative orientation, instrumental orientation, anxiety, parental encouragement, motivational intensity, and desire to learn French. The scale instrument has been modified more recently. The Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) is designed to measure different components of the socio-educational model of SLA. There are eleven sub-tests, nine with ten items each, and two with four items. The five main variables assessed in the AMTB are attitudes toward the learning situation, integrativeness, motivation, instrumentality and language anxiety.

History of the Ancient Olympics

History of the Ancient Olympics The Origins and History of the Ancient Olympics Introduction The first ancient Olympic Games can be traced back to 776 B.C and were celebrated until 393 A.D (Young, 1987). The Games continued for twelve centuries and were dedicated to Olympian gods. Olympia became the site of these historic ancient games that sowed the seeds for the most coveted sporting international event of modern times, the Modern Olympics. The site of the Ancient Olympics is located in the western part of Peloponnese. According to Greek mythology, Peloponnese is the island of Pelops, the Founder of the Olympic Games (Young, 1987). Olympia, in Greece is the sanctuary site for the ancient Greek gods. The central part of Olympia was dominated by the majestic temple of Zeus. The ancient games enjoyed a secular tradition and aimed at securing good relations between the cities of Greece and showing physical qualities and evolution of the performances accomplished by the youth. The Olympic Games were held in four years intervals at the ancient stadium in Olympia that could accommodate more than 40,000 spectators. The surrounding areas around the ancient Olympic stadium were continuously developed until the 4th century BC and were used as training grounds for athletes or to serve as homes for the Olympic judges (Young, 1987). The Ancient Olympics allowed only free men who spoke Greek to participate in the Games. The ancient games had a slight international spirit as they included participants from other parts of Greece. The Greeks that came to the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia shared the same religious beliefs and spoke the same language. The athletes were all male citizens of the city-states from every corner of the Greek world, coming from as far away as Iberia (Spain) in the west and the Black Sea (Turkey) in the east (Reeser, 2005) In the ancient Olympics, married women were not allowed to participate in any way. However unmarried women could only spectate. The ancient Olympic Games though did not allow female participants; an exception was made at the Herean Games, staged every four years to honour Hera, wife of Zeus, allowing female athletes to participate in the games. Kyniska, daughter of King Archidamos of Sparta, was the first woman to be listed as an Olympic victor in Antiquity. The events were judged by the Herald, a Hellanodikis (Greek Judge). The Olympic victors in ancient times received their awards immediately after the competition. The Herald, after announcing the name of the victor, placed a palm branch in his hands. Red ribbons were tied on his head and hands to symbolize his victory. The official award ceremony that took place on the last day of the Games was a proud day for the victor. From the elevated vestibule of the temple of Zeus, the Herald announced the name of the winner, his fathers na me and the name of his homeland. The winner was finally honoured with the Herald placing the sacred olive tree wreath or kotinos on the winners head (Reeser, 2005). The Olympic Games, originally created to honour Zeus, was the most important national festival of the ancient Greeks, and a focus of political rivalries between the nation-states. However, all competitions involved individual competitors rather than teams. Winning an Olympic contest was regarded more highly than winning a battle and was proof of an individual athletes personal excellence. The winners were presented with garlands, crowned with olive wreaths, and viewed as national heroes (Young, 1987). Although records of the Olympics date back to 776 BC when the Olympics were reorganized and the official First Olympiad was held, Homers Iliad suggests that they existed as early as the 12th century BC. Emperor Theodosius I of Rome discontinued them in the 4th century AD, and they did not occur again until they were reinstated in Athens in 1896 (Young, 1987). Originally, the Olympics was confined to running, but by the 15th Olympiad, additional sports were added, such as the pentathlon which was made up of five different events, boxing, wrestling, chariot racing, as well as a variety of foot races of varying lengths, including a long-distance race of approximately 2.5 miles. Athletes usually competed without clothes proudly displaying their perfect bodies. Women, foreigners, slaves, and dishonoured persons were forbidden to compete; women, once they were married, were not allowed to spectate any Olympic events, except for chariot races (Reeser, 2005). The actual events taking place have changed significantly since the Ancient Olympics. Evidence shown in pictures, dating from circa 490-480 BC, depicts two men wrestling. Above them hang a discus in its bag and a pair of jumping weights called halteres. Long jumpers used the weights to increase their competition distances by vigorously swinging them forward at the moment of takeoff. The coach or trainer stands to the left of the wrestlers, leaning on his staff and holding a long forked branch. (Rhizopoulou, 2004). The ancient Olympic Games began in the year 776 BC, when Koroibos, a cook from the nearby city of Elis, won the stadium race, a foot race 600 feet long. According to (Wei, 1996), this was the only athletic event of the games for the first 13 Olympic festivals or until 724 BC. From 776 BC, the Games were held in Olympia every four years for almost 12 centuries (Young, 1987). The marathon was not an event of the ancient Olympic Games. The marathon is a modern event that was first introduced in the Modern Olympic Games of 1896 in Athens, a race from the northeast of Athens to the Olympic Stadium and the athlete had to complete over a distance of 40 kilometres. The race commemorates the run of Pheidippides, an ancient day-runner who carried the news of the Persian landing at Marathon of 490 B.C. to Sparta (a distance of 149 miles) in order to enlist help for the battle. According to (finely, 1976) during the fifth century B.C. Ancient Greek historian Herodotus, Pheidippides delivered the news to the Spartans the next day. The distance of the modern marathon was standardized as 26 miles 385 yards or 42.195 km. in 1908 when the Olympic Games were held in London. The distance was the exact measurement between Windsor Castle, the start of the race, and the finish line inside White City Stadium (Wei, 1996). Although the ancient Games were staged in Olympia, Greece, from 776 BC through 393 AD, it took 1503 years for the Olympics to return. The first modern Olympics were held in Athens, Greece, in 1896. The man responsible for its rebirth was a Frenchman named Baron Pierre de Coubertin, who presented the idea in 1894. His original thought was to unveil the modern Games in 1900 in his native Paris, but delegates from 34 countries were so enthralled with the concept that they convinced him to move the Games up to 1896 and have Athens serve as the first host (Wei, 1996). The idea of the Olympic torch or Olympic Flame was first inaugurated in the 1928 Olympic Games in Amsterdam. There was no torch relay in the ancient Olympic Games. There were known, however, torch relays in other ancient Greek athletic festivals including those held at Athens. The modern Olympic torch relay was first took place at the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin. The Modern Olympic flag of five linked rings, each with a primary colour used in the flags of the nations competing in the games, was introduced in 1908. There is no ancient basis for this modern symbol (Rhizopoulou, 2004). THE POLITICS OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES The celebration of the Olympic Games in antiquity was an occasion for citizens of scattered Greek city-states to assemble. At the Games they discussed important political issues, celebrated common military victories and even formed political and military alliances. But the Games were not only a forum in which to discuss political events; they were also the cause of political conflict. Control of the Sanctuary and the Games brought with it prestige, economic advantages and, most importantly, political influence. As early as the 7th century BC we hear of disputes over the control of the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia between the city of Elis (30 miles to the north) and the small neighbouring town of Pisa (Wei, 1996). In 668 BC, according to Pausanias (a 2nd century AD Greek traveller), the powerful tyrant of Argos (named Pheidon) was asked by the town of Pisa to capture the Sanctuary of Zeus from the city-state of Elis. Pheidon, with his army of well-trained hoplites (armed soldiers), marched across the Peloponnesos, secured the Sanctuary for the town of Pisa, and personally presided over the conduct of the games. But Pisas control of the Sanctuary was brief: by the next year Elis had regained control (Fineley, 1976). The Olympic Truce was instituted by the city-state of Elis to protect against military incursions which interrupted the Games. Every four years, special heralds from Elis were sent out to all corners of the Greek world to announce the approaching Olympic festival and games. Along with this news, they would announce the Olympic Truce, which protected athletes, visitors, spectators and official embassies who came to the festival from becoming involved in local conflicts. Later, political tyrants of the 7th and 6th centuries BC attempted to achieve influence by more peaceful means. They participated in the athletic and equestrian contests of the Olympic Games and dedicated conspicuously lavish offerings to Olympian Zeus at the site of the games (Finley, 1976). Nowadays there is a strong connection between salesmanship and sports and some would even say that the line between sales pitching and fast pitches has become completely blurred. At Olympic competitions, athletes uniforms and equipment bear the discreet but readily identifiable trademarks of their manufacturers. After the Games, we are presented with images of Olympians endorsing products and appearing on cereal boxes. Later, some Olympic celebrities become commodities themselves, as TV shows and record labels cash in on their fame (Wei, 1996). Even in the Ancient Olympics, the victorious athletes were still celebrated and became famous for their outstanding abilities and achievements. Sculptors were commissioned to create statues of victorious athletes to be set up in the Sanctuary or in the home town of the athlete. According to Pliny, most of the statues set up in the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia were idealistic images of athletes. We are told that only if an athlete had won three Olympic victories could a realistic likeness of the athlete appear in the Sanctuary. In the Ancient Olympics, if an athlete was found guilty of cheating or bribing officials, they would be subjected to some form of public humiliation. For example if athletes were found guilty of cheating the they were made to created statues of the eventual champions which were placed in stadium so that people could celebrate them (Rhizopoulou , 2004). THE MODERN OLYMPICS Todays Modern Olympic Games have 32 different categories of competitive events. When you consider that of these many, like track and field, have several events within the category and then break down further to mens and womens and team and individual competition, it is nearly impossible to keep track of the Games as they progress. Things were much simpler in the past. The Ancient Olympics had 13 events which were divided into 6 main categories and only men were allowed to participate in the events (Vassill, 2004). The main categories were boxing, equestrian events, pentathlon, running and jumping. The Equestrian events were broken down into two sub-categories: chariot racing and riding. The Pentathlon was a combination of five events: discus, javelin, jump, running, and wrestling (Crowther, 1996). Boxing in ancient Greece had fewer rules than boxing today. There were no rounds and boxers fought until one of them was knocked out, or admitted he had been beaten. There was no rule that prevented a boxer from hitting an opponent when he was down. There was no weight class in either the mens or boys divisions and the contestants were chosen randomly. The boxers did not wear gloves but wrapped their hands and wrists with leather straps called himantes.and this meant that their fingers were left free (Vassill, 2004). Equestrian events were divided into classes of chariot racing and riding. The chariot races consisted of both the 2-horse chariot and the 4-horse chariot and there were separate races for chariots drawn by foals. There was a race of carts included in this event that consisted of competition between carts drawn by teams of 2 mules. The length of the chariot races was 12 laps around the stadium track which was approximately 9 miles (Vassill, 2004). Riding was the other equestrian event and the course was 6 laps around the stadium track which equaled 4.5 miles. The jockeys rode without stirrups and the races were broken down into competition between foals and full-grown horses. Because it was so expensive to train, feed and equip the participants the owners were awarded the olive wreath of victory instead of the riders (Wei, 1996). The most physical event of the Ancient Olympic Games was the pankration. This grueling event consisted of both boxing and wrestling. The hands were not wrapped in the leather himantes. The only limitations on physical brutality were the rules against biting and gouging the opponents eyes, nose, or mouth with fingernails. Kicking in any part of the body was allowed. There were separate divisions for men and boys, but like in boxing there was no weight division and the opponents were chosen at random (Vassill, 2004). The pentathlon, like the modern event, consisted of a 5-event combination. The 5 events of the Ancient Olympic Games were discus, javelin, jumping, running and wrestling. The Greeks considered this the most beautiful of the contests as it combined the endurance of the race course and the bodily strength necessary for the other physical events. The discus was made out of either of iron, stone, bronze, or leads and was shaped to resemble the discus of today. The sizes varied and the boys competed with a lighter weight than the men. The ancient Greeks thought the precision and rhythm of an athlete throwing the discus as important as his strength (Wei, 1996). The javelin was a throwing event as in the modern games and like the discus the competition was based on the distance the object was thrown and in the case of the javelin the precision. The javelin was made of wood, with either a sharpened end or an attached metal point. The javelin had a thong for the throwersfingers that was attached close to the center of gravity of the instrument that increased the precision and distance of the throw (Wei, 1996). The jump event was similar to the modern long jump but with a major exception. The jumpers carried stone or lead weights called halteres. These weights, shaped like telephone receivers, were carried out in front of the jumper when they jumped the weights were thrust backward and dropped during the descent to increase the distance of the jump (Fineley , 1976). Running was broken down into 4 types of races in the Ancient Olympic Games. The stadion was the oldest of the events and consisted of a sprint covering one stade (192 meters) which was the length of the stadium. Other races were the 2-stade race and the long distance runranged from 7 to 24 stades. The most grueling of the races was the warrior race designed to build and test the speed and stamina Greek men needed for military service. The race was 2 to 4-stades in distance and was run by an athlete wearing armor. The standard armor of that time weighed approximately 50-60 pounds and of course included a helmet and shield (Fineley, 1976). Wrestling was similar to the modern sport in that the athlete was required to throw his opponent to the ground landing on a hip, shoulder, or back for a fair fall. To win a match required 3 fair falls or throws. Genital holds and biting were not allowed and breaking your opponents fingers was also not permitted (Vassill, 2004). The art and sculpture of ancient Greece is alive with the depictions of the Olympics and the events described in this article. One can feel the excitement and spirit of the Ancient Olympic Games in that art. In modern games the spirit of the Olympism of old is recreated in the ceremonies and competitiveness of the event (Fineley, 1976) In conclusion the Ancient Olympics were held to honour Zeus. There were 13 events in the Ancient Olympics compared to the 32 events in the modern Olympics. Most of the events that were held at the Ancient Olympics are still part of the modern day Olympics. In the ancient Olympics only men were allowed to compete whereas nowadays men and women are allowed to compete in all of the events. The athlete who won gold medals at the Ancient Olympics had sculptures with their picture on them so that people could celebrate their victory. Nowadays, there are some traditions that are still valued and for many athletes, winning an Olympic gold medal is still the main highlight of their career. Reference Page Crowther, N, (1996), athlete and state: qualifying for the Olympics games in ancient Greece, journal of sport history, 41 800-688 Finley, I, (1976), Olympic Games the first thousand years, London, Chatto Windus. Reese, J, C, (2005) Gender identity and sport: is the playing field level, Journal of Sports Medline, 39 695-699 Rhizopoulou, S, (2004), Symbolic plant (s) of the Olympic Games Journal of Experimental Botany, 46, 620-588 Vassill, G, (2004).The Olympic Games explained a student guide to the evolution of the modern Olympic Games, London, Routledge. Wei, Y, (1996), The Olympic image the first 100 years, Edmonton, Alberta, QuonEditions. Young, D, (1987), The origins of the modern Olympics a new version, International Journal of the History of Sport, 39 695-699

The American Dream Conspiracy in Death of a Salesman Essays -- Death o

Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman tells the story of the failure of a salesman, Willy Loman. Although not all Americans are salesmen, most of us share Willy’s dream of success. We are all partners in the American Dream and parties to the conspiracy of silence surrounding the fact that failures must outnumber successes.(Samantaray, 2014) Miller amalgamates the archetypal tragic hero with the mundane American citizen. The result is the anti-hero, Willy Loman. He is a simple salesman who constantly aspires to become 'great'. Nevertheless, Willy has a waning career as a salesman and is an aging man who considers himself to be a failure but is incapable of consciously admitting it. As a result, the drama of the play lies not so much in its events, but in Willy's deluded perception and recollection of them as the audience gradually witness the tragic demise of a helpless man. In creating Willy Loman, Miller presents the audience with a tragic figure of human proportions. Miller characterizes the ordinary man (the 'low man') and ennobles his achievements. Willy's son, Biff, calls his father a 'prince', evoking a possible comparison with Shakespeare's Hamlet, prince of Denmark.. Thus, the play appeals greatly to the audience because it elevates an ordinary American to heroic status. Death of a Salesman seems to conform to the 'tragic' tradition that there is an anti-hero whose state of hamartia causes him to suffer. The audience is compelled to genuinely sympathize with Willy's demise largely because he is an ordinary man who is subject to the same temptations as the rest of us. Miller uses many characters to contrast the difference between success and failure in the American system. Willy Loman is a deluded salesman whose... ...ccess, and we measure men by occupational attainment rather than by the more difficult process of considering the whole person. We are all partners in the American Dream and parties to the conspiracy of silence surrounding the fact that failures must outnumber successes. Perhaps the great power of Death of a Salesman is due to the fact that it breaks the conspiracy of silence and reveals to us a failure that too closely resembles our worst fears. Works Consulted Bloom, Harold. Arthur Miller. New York: Chelsea, 2008. Griffin, Alice. Understanding Arthur Miller. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996 Miller, Arthur.   Death of a Salesman. U.K.: Penguin, 2013. Samantaray, Swati. "DYSTOPIA: A CRITIQUE OF ARTHUR MILLER'S DEATH OF A SALESMAN" New Academia, Jan. 2014. Web. 18 May 2015. http://oaji.net/articles/2014/1439-1416462621.pdf

Investigating the effect of varying concentration on the reaction betwe

Investigating the effect of varying concentration on the reaction between magnesium ribbon and hydrochloric acid Aim It is to tell how the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid will be effected if we change the concentration of hydrochloric acid. Introduction In the experiment the magnesium reacts with the hydrochloric acid to create magnesium chloride and hydrogen. The balanced formula for this is: Mg(s) + 2HCL(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) Magnesium + hydrochloric acid Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen Magnesium will react with hydrochloric acid, because it is higher in the reactivity series than hydrogen. The magnesium displaces the hydrogen in the acid, so it forms magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas. Magnesium strip Hydrochloric acid particles There are many variables that I can change, which are the temperature and concentration of the hydrochloric acid, and the mass and the surface area of the magnesium strip. This is all true because they all link to the collision theory of particles colliding with enough energy to make a reaction. It is based on the idea that for a chemical reaction to take place, the reacting particles have to hit each other hard enough to break or form new bonds. This is called a successful collision. When particles get stimulated or increased in number, the reaction will increase in rate because faster collisions will take place making more successful collisions. This diagram shows five solutions hydrochloric acid and magnesium ribbon that are reacting. The arrows represent a simplified way to show how many successful collisions occur each second; therefore the more arrows there are, the faster the rate of reaction. They show how different factors can affect the rate of reaction against t... ...at are very hard to keep constant so it would have been helpful to repeat the experiment again or even more. The syringe could have stuck on the barrel around it giving me lower readings on curtain points or when the reaction stopped. I should have put some lubricant around it to stop this from possibly happening. Further Work I could test the concentrations for the ones in between like 0.25 and 0.75 to see how the rate of reaction changes. I could also change the acid reactant to sulphuric acid or phosphoric acid to see and compare the results with different molecular make-ups. The other reactant that I could change is the type of metal I use. Using the less reactive metals like zinc, aluminium, iron or lead enables me to test the higher concentrations like 3M or 4M because the reaction will go slower so I will be able to read the results off the syringe properly.